🎓 edX E‑eshe · Ethiopia

HORT 202 · Plant Biochemistry

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All visual resources for Plant Biochemistry · HORT 202

📊 0+ images 📚 6 modules 🔍 Searchable 📥 Download any image

0 Module I · Molecular Foundations

0 Module II · Metabolism

0 Module III · Productivity

0 Module IV · Stress

0 Module V · Techniques

0 Module VI · Case Studies

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🧬 Module I · Molecular Foundations

Water molecule hydrogen bonding

Water Molecule Structure

Hydrogen bonding between water molecules, showing polarity (δ⁻, δ⁺)

Module I 1.1.2

images/01_water_molecule_hbonding.png

Five key properties of water

Five Properties of Water

Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, heat capacity, universal solvent

Module I 1.1.2

images/02_water_properties_complete.png

Water properties infographic

Water Properties Infographic

Summary with horticultural applications

Module I 1.1.2

images/03_water_properties_infographic.png

Sugar ring structures

Monosaccharide Ring Structures

Glucose, fructose, and galactose

Module I 1.2.1

images/01_sugar_ring_structures.png

Glucose ring formation

Glucose Ring Formation

Cyclization from linear to ring form

Module I 1.2.1

images/03_glucose_ring_formation.png

Sucrose formation

Sucrose Formation

Three stages of glycosidic bond formation

Module I 1.2.1

images/01_sucrose_formation_stages.png

Sucrose detailed structure

Sucrose Detailed Structure

α1→β2 glycosidic bond

Module I 1.2.1

images/02_sucrose_detailed_structure.png

Starch comparison

Amylose vs Amylopectin

Linear and branched starch structures

Module I 1.2.1

images/01_starch_comparison.png

Amylopectin branch point

Amylopectin Branch Point

α-1,6 linkage detail

Module I 1.2.1

images/02_amylopectin_branch_point.png

Cellulose microfibril

Cellulose Microfibril

36 glucan chains with crystalline regions

Module I 1.2.1

images/03_cellulose_microfibril.png

Cell wall layers

Plant Cell Wall Layers

Middle lamella, primary wall, secondary wall

Module I 1.2.1

images/04_cell_wall_layers.png

Saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Straight vs kinked chains

Module I 1.2.3

images/01_saturated_vs_unsaturated.png

Triglyceride structure

Triglyceride Structure

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Module I 1.2.3

images/02_triglyceride_structure.png

Phospholipid bilayer

Phospholipid Bilayer

Cell membrane structure

Module I 1.2.3

images/03_phospholipid_bilayer.png

Plant cuticle

Plant Cuticle Structure

Epicuticular wax, cutin, cell wall

Module I 1.2.3

images/04_plant_cuticle.png

Carotenoid structure

β-Carotene Structure

Conjugated double bonds

Module I 1.2.3

images/05_carotenoid_structure.png

Membrane proteins

Cell Membrane with Proteins

Fluid mosaic model

Module I 1.2.3

images/06_membrane_proteins.png

Oil bodies

Oil Bodies in Seeds

Lipid droplets with oleosin proteins

Module I 1.2.3

images/07_oil_bodies.png

Fatty acid comparison

Fatty Acid Comparison Table

Properties of saturated and unsaturated

Module I 1.2.3

images/08_fatty_acid_comparison.png

Horticultural applications of lipids

Lipids in Horticulture

Fruit coatings, oils, anti-transpirants

Module I 1.2.4

images/09_horticultural_applications.png

Niger seed

Ethiopian Niger Seed (Nug)

Oilseed crop, fatty acid profile

Module I 1.2.3

images/10_niger_seed.png

Amino acid general structure

General Amino Acid Structure

Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl, R group

Module I 1.3.1

images/01_amino_acid_general.png

Peptide bond formation

Peptide Bond Formation

Condensation reaction releasing water

Module I 1.3.1

images/02_peptide_bond_formation.png

Protein structure levels

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Primary to quaternary organization

Module I 1.3.1

images/03_protein_structure_levels.png

Enzyme active site

Enzyme Active Site

Substrate binding and specificity

Module I 1.3.2

images/04_enzyme_active_site.png

Lock and key vs induced fit

Enzyme Action Models

Lock and key vs induced fit

Module I 1.3.2

images/05_lock_key_vs_induced_fit.png

Activation energy graph

Activation Energy Graph

Enzymes lower energy barrier

Module I 1.3.2

images/06_activation_energy.png

Factors affecting enzymes

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature, pH, [S], [E]

Module I 1.3.3

images/07_factors_affecting_enzymes.png

Enzyme inhibition

Types of Enzyme Inhibition

Competitive, non-competitive, uncompetitive

Module I 1.3.3

images/08_enzyme_inhibition.png

Enzyme kinetics

Enzyme Kinetics Plots

Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk

Module I 1.3.2

images/09_enzyme_kinetics.png

Fruit browning

Enzymatic Browning (PPO)

Polyphenol oxidase reaction

Module I 1.3.4

images/10_fruit_browning.png

$Refractometer external view$

Handheld Refractometer

External view with labeled parts

Module I 1.2.2

images/01_refractometer_external.png

$Refractometer view$

Refractometer Eyepiece View

Reading Brix at boundary line

Module I 1.2.2

images/02_refractometer_view.png

Field Brix measurement

Field Brix Measurement

Farmer using refractometer in orchard

Module I 1.2.2

images/03_refractometer_field_use.png

Brix values chart

Brix Values for Fruits

Typical ranges and export threshold

Module I 1.2.2

images/05_brix_values.png

Starch to sugar conversion

Starch to Sugar Conversion

Changes during climacteric ripening

Module III 3.5

images/01_starch_sugar_conversion.png

Fruit ripening comparison

Fruit Ripening Comparison

Different climacteric fruits

Module III 3.5

images/02_fruit_comparison.png

Enzyme activities during ripening

Enzyme Activities During Ripening

α-amylase, polygalacturonase, ACC synthase

Module III 3.5

images/03_enzyme_activities.png

Ethylene and respiration

Ethylene and Respiration

Climacteric peak

Module III 3.5

images/04_ethylene_respiration.png

Quality changes during ripening

Quality Changes During Ripening

Sweetness, firmness, acidity, color

Module III 3.5

images/05_quality_changes.png

Ripening infographic

Climacteric Ripening Summary

Four key processes

Module III 3.5

images/06_ripening_infographic.png

⚡ Module II · Metabolism & Energy Systems

Chloroplast structure

Chloroplast Structure

Grana, thylakoids, and stroma

Module II 2.1.1

images/02_01_chloroplast.png

Light reactions overview

Light Reactions Overview

PSII, electron transport, PSI, ATP synthesis

Module II 2.1.1

images/02_02_light_reactions.png

Z-scheme of photosynthesis

Z-Scheme (Electron Transport)

Redox potential changes during light reactions

Module II 2.1.1

images/02_03_z_scheme.png

Calvin cycle

Calvin Cycle

Three phases: fixation, reduction, regeneration

Module II 2.1.2

images/02_04_calvin_cycle.png

C3 C4 CAM comparison

C3 vs C4 vs CAM

Photosynthetic adaptations and examples

Module II 2.1.3

images/02_05_c3_c4_cam.png

Glycolysis overview

Glycolysis Overview

Energy investment and payoff phases

Module II 2.2.1

images/02_06_glycolysis.png

Krebs cycle

Krebs Cycle

Key intermediates and energy carriers

Module II 2.2.2

images/02_07_krebs_cycle.png

Electron transport chain

Electron Transport Chain

Complexes I-IV, proton pumping, ATP synthase

Module II 2.2.3

images/02_08_electron_transport_chain.png

ATP synthase mechanism

ATP Synthase Mechanism

Rotor-stator, proton flow drives ATP synthesis

Module II 2.2.3

images/02_09_atp_synthase.png

Phloem structure

Phloem Structure

Sieve elements and companion cells

Module II 2.3.1

images/02_10_phloem_structure.png

Source-sink relationships

Source-Sink Relationships

Sugar transport from leaves to fruits

Module II 2.3.2

images/02_11_source_sink.png

GS-GOGAT pathway

GS-GOGAT Pathway

Nitrogen assimilation into amino acids

Module II 2.4.1

images/02_12_gs_gogat.png

Nitrogen fixation

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Legume-rhizobia symbiosis, nodules

Module II 2.4.2

images/02_13_nitrogen_fixation.png

Fatty acid synthesis

Fatty Acid Synthesis

ACCase, FAS complex, chain elongation

Module II 2.4.3

images/02_14_fatty_acid_synthesis.png

Kennedy pathway

Kennedy Pathway

Triglyceride assembly (GPAT, LPAAT, DGAT)

Module II 2.4.3

images/02_15_kennedy_pathway.png

Energy accounting summary

Energy Accounting Summary

ATP yield from glucose (36-38 ATP)

Module II Summary

images/02_16_energy_summary.png

📈 Module III · Productivity & Quality

Harvest index concept

Harvest Index Concept

Traditional vs modern varieties showing HI increase from 0.3 to 0.5

Module III 3.1

harvest index, green revolution, dwarfing, grain yield

images/03_01_harvest_index_concept.png

HI values by crop type

Harvest Index by Crop Type

Typical HI values: cereals 0.5, root crops 0.7, leafy veg 0.85

Module III 3.1

harvest index, cereals, legumes, root crops, comparison

images/03_02_hi_values.png

Green Revolution impact

Green Revolution Impact

Historical increase in harvest index for wheat and rice (1960-2010)

Module III 3.1

green revolution, wheat, rice, dwarfing genes, history

images/03_03_green_revolution.png

Sugar sweetness comparison

Sugar Sweetness Comparison

Relative sweetness of sugars (sucrose = 1.0): fructose (1.7), glucose (0.7)

Module III 3.2

sugars, sweetness, fructose, sucrose, glucose, flavor

images/03_04_sugar_sweetness.png

Sugar/acid ratio in fruits

Sugar/Acid Ratio in Fruits

Balance between sugars and acids determines fruit flavor quality

Module III 3.2

sugar acid ratio, flavor, fruit quality, Brix, acidity

images/03_05_sugar_acid_ratio.png

Aroma compound classes

Aroma Compound Classes

Esters (banana), terpenes (citrus), aldehydes (tomato), and more

Module III 3.2

aroma, volatiles, esters, terpenes, flavor compounds

images/03_06_aroma_classes.png

Vitamin content in fruits

Vitamin Content in Fruits

Vitamin C and vitamin A levels in common fruits

Module III 3.3

vitamins, nutrition, vitamin C, vitamin A, health

images/03_07_vitamin_content.png

ORAC values

Antioxidant Capacity (ORAC)

ORAC values: wild blueberries (9600), pomegranate (4500), blackberries (4000)

Module III 3.3

antioxidants, ORAC, nutrition, health, superfoods

images/03_08_orac_values.png

Pigment classes

Plant Pigment Classes

Chlorophylls (green), carotenoids (yellow/orange), anthocyanins (red/purple), betalains (red/yellow)

Module III 3.4

pigments, chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, betalains, color

images/03_09_pigment_classes.png

Ripening color changes

Ripening Color Changes

Pigment changes during fruit ripening: tomato (lycopene), banana (carotenoids), strawberry (pelargonidin)

Module III 3.4

ripening, color, pigments, lycopene, carotenoids, anthocyanins

images/03_10_ripening_colors.png

Respiration rate vs storage life

Respiration Rate vs Storage Life

Inverse relationship: high respiration (asparagus) = short life, low respiration (onion) = long life

Module III 3.5

respiration, storage, shelf life, post-harvest, produce

images/03_11_respiration_storage.png

Q10 temperature effect

Q₁₀ Temperature Effect

Respiration rate doubles/triples for every 10°C increase (Q₁₀ = 2-3)

Module III 3.5

Q10, temperature, respiration, cold storage, post-harvest

images/03_12_q10_effect.png

Ethylene in ripening

Ethylene in Climacteric Ripening

Ethylene burst triggers respiration peak and ripening processes

Module III 3.5

ethylene, ripening, climacteric, respiration, hormone

images/03_13_ethylene_ripening.png

1-MCP mechanism

1-MCP (SmartFresh™) Mechanism

1-MCP blocks ethylene receptors, preventing ripening and senescence

Module III 3.5

1-MCP, SmartFresh, ethylene inhibitor, post-harvest, ripening control

images/03_14_1mcp_mechanism.png

Chilling injury

Chilling Injury in Tropical Fruits

Symptoms: pitting, water-soaked areas, uneven ripening at temperatures below 12°C

Module III 3.5

chilling injury, tropical fruits, cold storage, membrane damage

images/03_15_chilling_injury.png

Quality parameters summary

Quality Parameters Summary

Comprehensive table of quality metrics: harvest index, flavor, nutrition, pigments, post-harvest

Module III Summary

summary, quality parameters, harvest index, flavor, nutrition, pigments

images/03_16_quality_summary.png

🌵 Module IV · Stress & Environmental Biochemistry

Abiotic stress types

Abiotic Stress Types

Drought, salinity, temperature extremes, and flooding

Module IV 4.1

abiotic stress, drought, salinity, temperature, flooding

images/04_01_abiotic_stress_types.png

Drought stress mechanisms

Drought Stress Mechanisms

ABA signaling, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defense, LEA proteins

Module IV 4.1

drought, ABA, proline, osmotic adjustment, LEA proteins

images/04_02_drought_stress.png

SOS pathway

SOS Pathway: Salt Tolerance

SOS3 senses Ca²⁺, activates SOS2 kinase, which phosphorylates SOS1 Na⁺/H⁺ antiporter

Module IV 4.1

SOS pathway, salt tolerance, salinity, SOS1, SOS2, SOS3, calcium

images/04_03_sos_pathway.png

Compatible solutes

Compatible Solutes (Osmoprotectants)

Proline, glycine betaine, trehalose, sugars maintain turgor and protect proteins

Module IV 4.1

compatible solutes, osmoprotectants, proline, glycine betaine, trehalose

images/04_04_compatible_solutes.png

Temperature stress

Temperature Stress Responses

Heat stress (HSPs, protein denaturation) and cold stress (CBF pathway, membrane unsaturation)

Module IV 4.1

heat stress, cold stress, HSPs, CBF pathway, temperature acclimation

images/04_05_temperature_stress.png

Secondary metabolites classes

Secondary Metabolites Classes

Terpenes, phenolics, alkaloids: their precursors and functions

Module IV 4.2

secondary metabolites, terpenes, phenolics, alkaloids, plant defense

images/04_06_secondary_metabolites.png

Phenylpropanoid pathway

Phenylpropanoid Pathway

From phenylalanine to flavonoids, lignin, and tannins via PAL, C4H, and other enzymes

Module IV 4.2

phenylpropanoid, PAL, flavonoids, lignin, tannins, phenolics

images/04_07_phenylpropanoid.png

Alkaloid examples

Common Alkaloids and Sources

Caffeine (coffee), nicotine (tobacco), morphine (opium poppy), quinine (cinchona)

Module IV 4.2

alkaloids, caffeine, nicotine, morphine, quinine, cocaine

images/04_08_alkaloids.png

ABA signaling

ABA Signaling Pathway

ABA binds PYR/PYL receptors, inhibits PP2C, activates SnRK2, leading to stomatal closure

Module IV 4.3

ABA, abscisic acid, stomatal closure, signaling, drought

images/04_09_aba_signaling.png

Jasmonate defense

Jasmonate Signaling in Defense

Herbivory triggers JA synthesis, COI1 receptor activation, and defense responses

Module IV 4.3

jasmonate, JA, herbivore defense, COI1, proteinase inhibitors

images/04_10_jasmonate_defense.png

Ethylene triple response

Ethylene Triple Response

Ethylene causes: inhibited stem elongation, thickened stem, exaggerated apical hook

Module IV 4.3

ethylene, triple response, seedling, apical hook, stem thickening

images/04_11_ethylene_triple.png

ROS production and scavenging

ROS Production and Scavenging

Major ROS species (O₂⁻, H₂O₂, OH•, ¹O₂) and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, APX, GR)

Module IV 4.4

ROS, reactive oxygen species, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, antioxidants, SOD, CAT

images/04_12_ros_production.png

Ascorbate-glutathione cycle

Ascorbate-Glutathione Cycle

Foyer-Halliwell-Asada cycle: APX, MDHAR, DHAR, and GR detoxify H₂O₂

Module IV 4.4

ascorbate, glutathione, Foyer-Halliwell-Asada, APX, antioxidant cycle

images/04_13_ascorbate_glutathione.png

Stress tolerance strategies

Stress Tolerance Strategies

Escape (early maturity), avoidance (deep roots), tolerance (osmotic adjustment)

Module IV 4.5

stress tolerance, escape, avoidance, tolerance, adaptation

images/04_14_stress_strategies.png

Sub1A rice

Sub1A Rice: Flood Tolerance

Sub1A gene confers submergence tolerance through metabolic quiescence

Module IV 4.5

Sub1A, rice, flood tolerance, submergence, breeding, quiescence

images/04_15_sub1a_rice.png

Stress summary table

Stress Responses Summary Table

Comprehensive table of stress types, responses, signaling, and horticultural relevance

Module IV Summary

summary, stress responses, drought, salinity, heat, cold, oxidative

images/04_16_stress_summary.png

🔬 Module V · Analytical & Biochemical Techniques

Lab safety equipment

Laboratory Safety Equipment

PPE and safety gear: lab coat, goggles, gloves, safety shower

Module V 5.1

safety, PPE, lab coat, goggles, gloves, safety shower

images/05_01_lab_safety.png

Laboratory glassware

Common Laboratory Glassware

Beaker, Erlenmeyer flask, volumetric flask, graduated cylinder, pipette

Module V 5.1

glassware, beaker, flask, cylinder, pipette, volumetric

images/05_02_lab_glassware.png

Solution preparation

Solution Preparation Calculations

Molarity (M = n/V), percent solutions (% w/v, % v/v), dilutions (C₁V₁ = C₂V₂)

Module V 5.1

molarity, percent solution, dilution, C1V1, calculations

images/05_03_solution_prep.png

pH and buffers

pH and Buffer Systems

pH scale (0-14), buffer definition, Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

Module V 5.1

pH, buffers, Henderson-Hasselbalch, acidic, basic, neutral

images/05_04_ph_buffers.png

Spectrophotometer components

Spectrophotometer Components

Light source, monochromator, sample cuvette, detector, display

Module V 5.2

spectrophotometer, light source, monochromator, cuvette, detector

images/05_05_spectrophotometer.png

Absorption spectrum

Absorption Spectrum of Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll a and b absorption peaks at 430 nm and 660 nm

Module V 5.2

absorption spectrum, chlorophyll, wavelength, λmax, pigments

images/05_06_absorption_spectrum.png

Standard curve

Standard Curve for Protein Assay

Bradford assay standard curve with BSA standards and unknown determination

Module V 5.2

standard curve, Bradford, protein assay, linear regression, R²

images/05_07_standard_curve.png

Paper chromatography

Paper Chromatography

Separation of plant pigments with Rf value calculation

Module V 5.3

paper chromatography, pigments, Rf value, solvent front, origin

images/05_08_paper_chromatography.png

Thin layer chromatography

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

Silica gel plate with sample lanes and standards

Module V 5.3

TLC, thin layer chromatography, silica gel, stationary phase, mobile phase

images/05_09_tlc.png

HPLC schematic

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Components: solvent, pump, injector, column, detector with chromatogram

Module V 5.3

HPLC, chromatography, pump, column, detector, chromatogram

images/05_10_hplc.png

Enzyme progress curve

Enzyme Progress Curve

Product formation over time with initial linear rate

Module V 5.4

enzyme kinetics, progress curve, initial rate, product formation

images/05_11_progress_curve.png

Enzyme unit definition

Enzyme Unit (U) Definition

1 U = 1 μmol product/min, specific activity = U/mg protein

Module V 5.4

enzyme unit, International Unit, specific activity, U, µmol/min

images/05_12_enzyme_unit.png

Enzyme kinetics plots

Enzyme Kinetics: Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk

Vmax and Km determination from Michaelis-Menten and double reciprocal plots

Module V 5.4

Michaelis-Menten, Lineweaver-Burk, Vmax, Km, enzyme kinetics

images/05_13_enzyme_kinetics.png

Error bars SD vs SEM

Error Bars: SD vs SEM

Standard deviation (data spread) vs standard error (precision of mean)

Module V 5.5

error bars, standard deviation, SD, standard error, SEM, statistics

images/05_14_error_bars.png

Field sampling methods

Field Sampling Methods

Leaf, fruit, root, and soil sampling techniques with preservation methods

Module V 5.6

field sampling, leaf sampling, fruit sampling, preservation, liquid nitrogen

images/05_15_field_sampling.png

$Brix refractometer$

Brix Measurement with Refractometer

Handheld refractometer for measuring soluble solids (sugars) in fruits

Module V 5.7

Brix, refractometer, sugar measurement, fruit quality, field instrument

images/05_16_brix_refractometer.png

Titration setup

Titration Setup for Acidity

Burette with NaOH, sample with indicator, endpoint color change

Module V 5.7

titration, acidity, burette, endpoint, indicator, titratable acidity

images/05_17_titration.png

Export quality standards

Export Quality Standards

Minimum quality requirements: mango (12°Brix), avocado (21% dry matter), citrus (Brix/acid >10.5)

Module V 5.7

export standards, quality control, mango, avocado, citrus, Brix, dry matter

images/05_18_export_standards.png

🇪🇹 Module VI · Ethiopian Case Studies

Coffee cherry structure

Coffee Cherry Structure

Cross-section showing skin, pulp, parchment, and bean (endosperm)

Module VI 6.1

coffee, cherry, bean, endosperm, perisperm, parchment

images/06_01_coffee_cherry.png

Caffeine biosynthesis

Caffeine Biosynthesis Pathway

Xanthosine → 7-methylxanthosine → theobromine → caffeine via N-methyltransferases

Module VI 6.1

caffeine, biosynthesis, theobromine, methyltransferase, xanthosine

images/06_02_caffeine_biosynthesis.png

Coffee roasting changes

Biochemical Changes During Coffee Roasting

Green vs roasted coffee: CGA↓, trigonelline→niacin, sucrose caramelization

Module VI 6.1

coffee, roasting, Maillard, chlorogenic acid, trigonelline, caramelization

images/06_03_coffee_roasting.png

Ethiopian coffee regions

Ethiopian Coffee Regions

Yirgacheffe, Sidama, Jimma, Hararge, Nekemte with characteristic flavor profiles

Module VI 6.1

coffee, Ethiopia, Yirgacheffe, Sidama, Jimma, Hararge, regions

images/06_04_coffee_regions.png

Enset plant structure

Enset (False Banana) Plant Structure

Pseudostem, corm, roots and products: kocho, bulla, amicho

Module VI 6.2

enset, false banana, kocho, bulla, amicho, pseudostem, corm

images/06_05_enset_plant.png

Enset fermentation process

Enset Fermentation Process

Harvest → scraping → pit fermentation → kneading → kocho/bulla (pH 5.7→3.8)

Module VI 6.2

enset, fermentation, kocho, bulla, pit fermentation, pH change

images/06_06_enset_fermentation.png

Enset microbial dynamics

Microbial Dynamics in Enset Fermentation

LAB increase, Enterobacteriaceae decrease, pH drops during 42-day fermentation

Module VI 6.2

enset, LAB, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, pH, fermentation

images/06_07_enset_microbial.png

Mango maturity indices

Mango Maturity Indices

Immature, mature green (9-11°Brix), ripe (12-15°Brix), overripe stages

Module VI 6.3

mango, maturity, Brix, floatation test, harvest, ripening

images/06_08_mango_maturity.png

Mango export chain

Ethiopian Mango Export Chain

Farm → washing → cold storage (10-13°C) → packaging → transport → market

Module VI 6.3

mango, export, cold chain, post-harvest, logistics, timeline

images/06_09_mango_export_chain.png

Evaporative cooling

Zero-Energy Evaporative Cooler

Charcoal-based cooling system reduces temperature from 30°C to 18°C

Module VI 6.3

evaporative cooling, zero-energy, storage, post-harvest, Ethiopia

images/06_10_evaporative_cooling.png

Teff grain structure

Teff Grain Structure

Bran, endosperm (starch), germ. Nutritional: 8-11% protein, high iron and calcium

Module VI 6.4

teff, grain, structure, gluten-free, nutrition, iron, calcium

images/06_11_teff_grain.png

Injera fermentation

Injera Fermentation Process

Ersho starter → mixing → two-stage fermentation (LAB then yeasts) → baking on mitad

Module VI 6.4

injera, teff, fermentation, ersho, LAB, yeasts, pH, mitad

images/06_12_injera_fermentation.png

Injera eye formation

Injera Eye Formation

CO₂ from yeasts creates characteristic holes during baking

Module VI 6.4

injera, eyes, CO2, yeast, fermentation, baking, texture

images/06_13_injera_eyes.png

Rose flower structure

Rose Flower Structure for Export

Flower head, stem length (40-100 cm), leaves, thorns with grading criteria

Module VI 6.5

rose, flower, stem length, grading, vase life, export

images/06_14_rose_structure.png

Ethylene management

Ethylene Management in Cut Flowers

Sources (engine exhaust, fruits, senescing flowers) and inhibitors (STS, 1-MCP)

Module VI 6.5

ethylene, STS, 1-MCP, SmartFresh, flowers, senescence, vase life

images/06_15_ethylene_management.png

Flower grading standards

Cut Flower Grading Standards

Premium (70-100cm), Grade 1 (50-70cm), Grade 2 (30-50cm), Short (<30cm) with price premiums

Module VI 6.5

flowers, grading, stem length, premium, market, export, Ethiopia

images/06_16_flower_grading.png

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